第9章　错误反馈

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  1. Grothendieck, 1986.

  2. John Hattie’s meta-analysis grants feedback an effect size of 0.73 standard deviations, which makes it one of the most powerful modulators of learning (Hattie, 2008).

  3. Rescorla-Wagner learning rule: Rescorla and Wagner, 1972.

  4. For a detailed criticism of associative learning, see Balsam and Gallistel, 2009;Gallistel, 1990.

  5. Blocking of animal conditioning: Beckers, Miller, De Houwer, and Urushihara, 2006; Fanselow, 1998; Waelti, Dickinson, and Schultz, 2001.

  6. Surprise enhances infants’ learning and exploration: Stahl and Feigenson, 2015.

  7. Error signals in the brain: Friston, 2005; Naatanen, Paavilainen, Rinne, and Alho, 2007; Schultz, Dayan, and Montague, 1997.

  8. Surprise reflects the violation of a prediction: Strauss et al., 2015; Todorovic and de Lange, 2012.

  9. Hierarchy of local and global error signals: Bekinschtein et al., 2009; Strauss et al., 2015; Uhrig, Dehaene, and Jarraya, 2014; Wang et al., 2015.

  10. Surprise due to an unexpected picture: Meyer and Olson, 2011.

  11. Surprise due to a semantic violation: Curran, Tucker, Kutas, and Posner, 1993; Kutas and Federmeier, 2011; Kutas and Hillyard, 1980.

  12. Surprise due to a grammatical violation: Friederici, 2002; Hahne and Friederici, 1999; but see also Steinhauer and Drury, 2012, for a critical discussion.

  13. Prediction error in the dopamine network: Pessiglione, Seymour, Flandin, Dolan, and Frith, 2006; Schultz et al., 1997; Waelti et al., 2001.

  14. Importance of high-quality feedback at school: Hattie, 2008.

  15. Learning by trial and error in adults versus adolescents: Palminteri, Kilford, Coricelli, and Blakemore, 2016.

  16. Pennac, D. (2017, February 11). Daniel Pennac: “J’ai été d’abord et avant tout professeur.”Le Monde. Retrieved from lemonde.fr.

  17. Math anxiety syndrome: Ashcraft, 2002; Lyons and Beilock, 2012; Maloney and Beilock, 2012; Young, Wu, and Menon, 2012.

  18. Effect of fear conditioning on synaptic plasticity: Caroni et al., 2012; Donato et al., 2013.

  19. Fixed versus growth mindset: Claro, Paunesku, and Dweck, 2016; Dweck, 2006;Rattan, Savani, Chugh, and Dweck, 2015. Note, however, that the size of these effects, and therefore their practical relevance at school, has been recently questioned: Sisk, Burgoyne, Sun, Butler, and Macnamara, 2018.

  20. Massive effect of retrieval practice on learning: Carrier and Pashler, 1992;Karpicke and Roediger, 2008; Roediger and Karpicke, 2006; Szpunar, Khan, and Schacter, 2013; Zaromb and Roediger, 2010. For an excellent review of the relative efficacy of various learning techniques, see Dunlosky, Rawson, Marsh, Nathan, and Willingham, 2013.

  21. Making retrospective memory judgments facilitates learning: Robey, Dougherty, and Buttaccio, 2017.

  22. Retrieval practice facilitates the acquisition of foreign vocabulary: Carrier and Pashler, 1992; Lindsey, Shroyer, Pashler, and Mozer, 2014.

  23. Spacing the learning improves memory retention: Cepeda et al., 2009; Cepeda, Pashler, Vul, Wixted, and Rohrer, 2006; Rohrer and Taylor, 2006; Schmidt and Bjork, 1992.

  24. Brain imaging of the spacing effect: Bradley et al., 2015; Callan and Schweighofer, 2010.

  25. Effect of progressively increasing the time between lessons: Kang, Lindsey, Mozer, and Pashler, 2014.

  26. The shuffling of mathematics problems improves learning: Rohrer and Taylor, 2006, 2007.

  27. Feedback improves memory even on correct trials: Butler, Karpicke, and Roediger, 2008.

第8章　主动参与第10章　巩固